Notes for UPSC-Biosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Motion of the Earth and Weather and Climate

Biosphere

1. The part of the Earth where life exists is called the Biosphere ('bios' means 'life').
2. The Earth is the only planet of the solar system that supports life. Life is possible because of its unique lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.

Lithosphere

1. The uppermost layer of the Earth's crust which is capable of supporting life is called Lithosphere.
2. The Lithosphere (or land) covers two-sevenths or 29.22% (14,90,41,182 sq. km.) of the total surface area of the earth.

Hydrosphere

1. Hydrosphere (or sea) covers five-sevenths or more accurately 70.78% (36,10,59,226 sq. km.) of the total surface area of the earth.
2. Water is freely available in the gaseous, liquid and solid state.
3. It is necessary for carrying out chemical reactions within the bodies of the living organisms.
4. Water also dissolves and transports nutrients from the soil to the plants.
5. It is used by plants for making food.

Atmosphere

1. The envelope of air that completely surrounds the earth is known as atmosphere.
2. The atmosphere extends to about 1000 km from the surface of the earth. But 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere is found within 32 km.
3. This is because the atmosphere is held by the gravitational pull of the earth.

Motion of the Earth

1. The Earth spins (rotates), west to east on its axis once in 24 hours approximately.
2. The Earth's axis is not vertical. It makes an angle of 23° 30' with the vertical or 66° 30' with the plane of the. Earth's orbit.
3. The Earth's axis always remains pointed in the same direction (towards the Pole Star) as the Earth moves around the Sun. The tilt of the Earth's axis is known as the inclination of the Earth's axis.

Weather and Climate

1. Weather is the description of the atmospheric conditions of a particular place at a particular time for a short period of time.
2. Climate is the composite or integrated picture of the weather conditions over a long period of time.
3. Climatic data is based on calculated averages of data recorded over a period of 35 years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by WMO.

Notes for UPSC-UPSC IAS General Knowledge

Sr. N.	UPSC IAS General Knowledge
1	Who among the following invented Zero? A. Aryabhatta B. Varahamihira C. Bhaskara I D. An unknown Indian Answer Answer: An unknown Indian [ the most fundamental contribution of ancient India to the progress of civilisation is the decimal system of numeration including the invention of the number zero. This system uses 9 digits and a symbol for zero to denote all integral numbers, by assigning a place value to the digits. This system was used in Vedas and Valmiki Ramayana. Mohanjodaro and Harappa civilisations (3000 B.C.) also used this system..So,we can say Zero is invented by unknown Indian.]
2	Which of the following musical instruments is / are composite or Indo-Islamic in origin ? 1. Sitar 2. Shehnai 3. Tabla 4. Sarangi Choose the correct option from the codes given below: A. 1 & 2 Only B. 1, 3 & 4 Only C. 1, 2 & 3 Only D. 1, 2, 3 & 4 Answer Answer: 1, 3 & 4 Only [Shehnai is not composite or Indo-Islamic in origin.]
3	Which among the following is known as the earliest example of Panchayatana style of temple? A. Dashavatara temple at Deogarh B. Temple at Pathari C. Shatrughneshwara temple at Bhubaneshwar D. Lakshmana temple at Sirpur Answer Answer:Dashavatara temple.Deogarh [The Dashavatara Temple or Vishnu Temple also called Gupta temple at Deogarh. It was built in the Gupta Period (320 to c. 600 AD ). Archaeologists have inferred that it is the earliest known Panchayatana temple in North India. A hindu temple is a Panchayatana one when the main shrine is surrounded by four subsidiary shrines.]
4	Which among the following is the hallmark feature of the Dravida style of temple architecture? A. Shikhara B. Gopuram C. Vimana D. Mandapa Answer Answer : Vimana [Vimana is a term for the tower above the Garbhagriha or Sanctum sanctorum in a Hindu temple in Dravidian style.]
5	Which among the following is / are works of Kalidasa? 1. Ritusamhara 2. Meghaduta 3. Dasakumarcharita 4. Kumarashambhava Choose the correct option from the codes given below: A. Only 1 & 2 B. Only 2, 3 &4 C. Only 1, 2 & 4 D. 1, 2, 3 & 4 Answer Answer : Only 1, 2 & 4 [Dashakumaracharita (The narrative of ten young men) is a prose romance in Sanskrit, attributed to Dandin in the 7th century CE. Dandin is a 6th-7th century Sanskrit author of prose romances and expounder on poetics.]
6	Which among the following is the most famous Bronze Image of Chola Period? A. Murugan B. Nataraja C. Venkateshwar D. Vishnu Answer Answer : Nataraja [Chola art:The most famous of all the bronze icons is that of Nataraja, the Divine Dancer. The symbolism presents Siva as lord of the cosmic dance of creation and destruction.
7	Which among conclusions has been derived from the debasement of the coins and gradual disappearance of gold coins during the post-Gupta period? A. Commodities became cheap B. Gold Mining was stalled C. Money economy was gradually replaced by Barter Economy D. There was a decline in trade Answer Answer : There was a decline in trade [Debasement of the coins and gradual disappearance of gold coins during the post-Gupta period indicates the Decline of Trade.]
8	Which among the following ancient authors has complained of the drain of gold to India (due to trade hegemony of ancient India)? A. Ptolemy B. Nero C. Strabo D. Pliny Answer Answer : Pliny [ The lamentation of the Roman writer Pliny in the 1st century A.D refers to heavy drain of Gold from Roman into India in payment of her imports from India. He writes that the drain of Gold is in return for unproductive luxuries. The Roman gold and silver were steadily drained into South India in exchange not only for spices, but also muslin, silk and other costly luxuries.]
9	In the revenue department of Mauryas, who among the following was in-charge of the collection of all revenues in the empire? A. Sannidhatri B. Pradeshta C. Yukta D. Samahatra Answer Answer : Samahatra [ Mauryan administration: Samaharta – chancellor of the exchequer; responsible for the collection of revenue. The Revenue Department had Samharta who was incharge of the collection of all revenues in the empire]
10	The Pagodas at Mahabalipuram had been constructed by ___? A. Cholas B. Chalukyas of Kalyani C. Pallavas D. Pandyas Answer Answer : Pallavas [Pallava dynasty: the reign of Narasimhavarman I : constructed five rath temples at the port town of Mamllapuram (Mahabalipuram) These are now known as seven raths or Pagodas.]

Notes for UPSC-The Nuclear Fission

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear Fission

• Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts
• Nuclear fission can either release energy or absorb energy: for nuclei lighter than iron fission absorbs energy, while for nuclei heavier than iron it releases energy
• Energy released can be in the form of electromagnetic radiation or kinetic energy
• The amount of free energy contained in nuclear fuel is about a million times that contained in a similar mass of chemical fuel (like petrol)
• The atom bomb or fission bomb is based on nuclear fission
• Example: fission of Uranium-235 to give Barium, Krypton and neutrons

Nuclear Fusion

• Nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus
• Nuclear fusion can result in either the release or absorption of energy: for nuclei lighter than iron fusion releases energy, while for nuclei heavier than iron it absorbs energy
• Nuclear fusion is the source of energy of stars.
• Nuclear fusion is responsible for the production of all but the lightest elements in the universe. This process is called nucleosynthesis
• Controlled nuclear fusion can result in a thermonuclear explosion – the concept behind the hydrogen bomb
  
• The energy density of nuclear fusion is much greater than that of nuclear fission
  
• Only direct conversion of mass into energy (collision of matter and anti matter) is more energetic than nuclear fusion
• Example: fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form helium

Notes for UPSC-IMPORTANT REFORMS/Acts

7. Reforms/Acts

Nomenclature of the Reforms/Acts	Year	During the term of	Significance
Prohibition of Sati & Female infanticide	1829	Lord William Bentick	Supported by Raja Rammohun Roy.
Doctrine of Lapse	1848	Lord Dalhousie	Adoption of sons by rulers in the absence of their natural heirs was banned.
Indian Councils Act	1861	Lord Canning	Envisaged association of Indians with the administration at higher level.
Ilbert Bill	1883	Lord Ripon	To bring Indian and European magistracy on equal footing.
Indian Councils Act	1892	Lord Lansdown	Membership of central legislative councils was enlarged.
Morely-Minto Reforms	1909	Lord Minto II	Separate electroates to widen the gulf between Hindus & Muslims.
Dyarchy	1919	L. Chelmsford	Meaning dual system of Govt.
JaIlianwala Bagh Massacre	1919	L. Chelmsford	Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar by General Dyer
Rowlatt Act	1919	L. Chelmsford	Extraordinary powers were given to suppress the freedom struggle with General Dyer as the Commandant.
Simon commission	1928	Lord Irwin	To report working of the reforms; recommended dyarchy in provinces; India to be constituted as a federation and Indianization of armed forces.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact	1931	Lord Irwin	Congress called off the agitation and agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference.
Communal Award	1932	Lord Willingdon	Envisaged communal representation for depressed classes besides Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs.
Separate electrorates	1932	Lord Willingdon	(See Communal Award)
Government of India Act	1935	Lord Willingdon	Provided for a federal type of constitution.
Cripps Mission	1942	Lord Linlithgow	Proposed Dominion status for India after the Second World War.
INA Trial	1945	Lord Wavell	INA prisoners of war were trialed at Red Fort, Delhi and Bhulabhai Desai defended them.
Wavell Plan	1945	Lord Wavell	Envisaged constitution of executive council in such a way as to give representation to all major communities in India.
Cabinet Mission Plan	1946	Lord Wavell	Envisaged establishment of Constituent Assembly to frame the Constitution.
Mountbatten Plan	1947	L. Mountbatten	Partition Plan
Indian lndependence Act	1947	L. Mountbatten	India partitioned and attained independence.

Notes for UPSC-The Advent of the Europeans

13. The Advent of the Europeans

                                          

                     Image-The Advent of the Europeans

Note : Danish company were forced to sell all their settlements in India to the British in 1845.

Portugese

1. The Cape route was discovered from Europe to India by Vasco da Gama. He reached the port of Calicut on May 17,1498 and was received by the Hindu ruler of Calicut (Known by the title of Zamorin).
2. This led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore.
3. Cochin was the early capital of the Portuguese in India. Later Goa replaced it.
4. Francisco de Almeida was the first governor of Portuguese. Almeida (1505-09) introduced 'the policy of Blue water'.
5. Alfonso d‘Albuquerque was the second governor of Portuguese. Albuquerque (1509-15) introduced 'the policy of Imperialism'. He captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur in 1510.
6. Nino da Cunha (1529-38) transferred his capital from Cochin to Goa (1530) and acquired Diu and Bassein (1534) from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
7. Martin Alfonso de Souza (1542-45) : The famous Jesuit Saint Fransisco Xavier arrived in India with him.
8. The Portuguese power witnessed a decline by the end of the 16th century.
9. They lost Hugli in 1631 after being driven out by Qasim khan, a Mughal noble of Shahjahan.
10. In 1661 the King of Portugal gave Bombay to Charles II of England as dowry when he married the former's sister.
11. The Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein in 1739.
12. In the end they were left only with Goa, Diu and Daman which they retained till 1961.

Dutch

1. Formation of the company in March, 1602, by a charter of Dutch parliyament the Dutch East India Company was formed with powers to make wars, conclude treaties, acquire territories and build fortresses.
2. The Dutch set up factories at Masulipattam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimilipatam (1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Kasimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Negapatam (all in 1658) and Cochin (1663).
3. The Dutch replaced the Portuguese as the most dominant power in European trade with the East, including India.
4. Pulicat was main centre in India till 1690, after which Negapatam replaced it.
5. The Dutch conceded to English after their defeat in the battle of Bedera in 1759.

English

1. Before the English East India Company established trade in India, John Mildenhall, a merchant adventurer, was the first English man who arrived in India in 1599 by the over land route, ostensibly for the purpose of trade with Indian merchants.
2. The treaty of Pondicherry / Treaty by Godehu (new French governor in place of Dupleix) : 1754-ended the Second Anglo-French War.
3. Third Anglo-French war (1758-63) : French Count de Lally captured Fort St. David. French were defeated at Wandiwash (1760). It was a decisive defeat of French.
4. The treaty of Paris (1763) ended the Third and Final Anglo-French war in India. Pondicherry was returned to French by this treaty.

Notes for UPSC- Sources of the Indian Constitution

Different sources of the Indian Constitution

              Although the skeleton of the Constitution was derived from the GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935,many provisions Were imported from other Constitution of world. Some of them are listed  Along with the Government of India Act, 1935:

          

               

             PICTURE 1-Different sources of the Indian Constitution OF HAND WRITTEN NOTES. 

1.Government of India Act, 1935:-

              This act formed the basis or blueprint of the constitution of India with features of federal system, office of Governor, emergency powers etc. Besides the Constitution of India has borrowed from the-

2.Constitution of Britain (U.K.) :-

               Law making procedures, Rule of law, single citizenship, Bi-cameral Parliamentary System, office of CAG. 

3.Constitution of America (U.S.A.) :-

             Independence of Judiciary, judicial review, fundamental rights, removal of supreme Court and High  Judges, preamble and functions of president and vice-president. 

4.Constitution of Canada:-

             Federation with strong centre to provide reresiduary powers to the central, Supreme Court's advisory jurisdiction. 

5.Constitution of Ireland:-

             Directive principles of state policy, methods of presidential elections, and the nomination of members to Rajya sabha by the President. 

6.Weimar Constitution of  Germany:-

             Provisions concerning the suspension of fundamental rights during emergency. 

7.Constitution of Australia:-

             Idea, of concurrent list, trade and commerce provisions. 

       

       PICTURE 2-1-Different sources of the Indian Constitution OF HAND WRITTEN NOTES. 

8.Constitution of South Africa:-

              Amendment with 2/3rd majority in Parliament and election of the members of Rajya sabha on the basis of proportional representation. 

9.Constitution of France:-

              Republican system/principles of liberty, Equality and fraternity. 

10.Constitution of former U.S.S.R.:-

             Fundamental duties, Ideals of justice in preamble.